Compliance With Sarbanes Oxley Act for Companies in United States Essay

Compliance With Sarbanes Oxley Act for Companies in United States - Essay Example Accounting is a key area in every organization’s business. Correct recording and representation of material financial and operational facts about a company is critical for stakeholders to measure their interests into the company. Several industry standards are available for correct recording, calculation, and representation of this information. In addition, almost every country makes or adopts an accounting and internal control system which is mandatory for all the companies to follow. As time passes by, needs and requirements of new and comprehensive systems emerge that necessitates changes in the way traditional accounting and control systems operate.4.2  Background  The corporate world in United States took severe setbacks when scandals were surfaced about many large and multinational organizations in late 20th century. The companies like Enron, Tyco, and WorldCom were all victims of incorrect, ambiguous, unethical and inappropriate practices which remained hidden for a long period before they were finally identified and brought to the attention of the world. This sequence of events negatively affected shareholders’ and general public’s trust over the reliability and accuracy of financial information as published by companies. A general feeling was that of distrust, disbelieve, doubt and annoyance with the audit and internal controls systems of organizations. This state of affairs triggered a requirement for a regulation that could establish legal requirements for companies to ensure.

Respond question about reading Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Respond question about reading - Essay Example e texts make that establish a comparison or relationship between Alexie and Superman, and thirdly, why Alexie uses superman and not some other fictional character, in the readings, â€Å"The Joy Of Reading And Writing: Superman And Me†. Superman, a superhero character in comic fiction books, at times, faces dangerous situations, but in the end of the episode, he usually saves the world and he survives. Similarly, Alexie faced a dangerous when he was born hydrocephalic, which forced him to go through a brain surgery when he was only 6 months old. The likeness in the two is based on the fact that, they are faced with a dangerous situation, but ultimately they thrive and overcome the dangerous situation (McQuade & Atwan 27). Furthermore, as Superman grows to be older, his prowess is shown by how he wins various feats involving villains. Similarly, as Alexie, from an inferior Spokane Indian background grows up, his prowess starts to show when he moves from the reservation school and enrolls in a high school. In particular, Alexie’s prowess is seen firstly, when he becomes a star player in his high school basketball team. Secondly, he gets a scholarship to attend Gonzaga University in Spokane. Thirdly, â€Å"after graduation he receives the Washington State Arts Commission poetry Fellowship and a National Endowment for the Arts poetry Fellowship. Fourthly, he receives a PEN/Hemingway Award for â€Å"Best First Book of Fiction† because of writing a collection of short stories. Fifthly, Alexie’s prowess that make him similar to Superman, continue to be seen, when Granta puts his name as part of â€Å"Best of Young American Novelist†, and his books win different awards such as th e Christopher Award, National Book award for Young people’s Literature and PEN/Faulker Award for Fiction (McQuade & Atwan 28). The major connections in the text that establish a comparison or relationship between Alexie and Superman are the struggles that Alexie and Superman had to go through in

Recognition of Facial Emotions Using LDN Pattern

Recognition of Facial Emotions Using LDN Pattern RECOGNITION OF FACIAL EMOTIONS USING LDN PATTERN P. Ajay Kumar Reddy1, Dr S.G Hiremath2, Dr M.N GiriPrasad3, Dr G.N Kodanda Ramaiah4 1Research Scholar, Dept of ECE, KEC/JNTUA, Kuppam,A.P,India. 3Professor, Dept of ECE, JNTU,Ananthapuramu ,A.P,India. 2,4Professor, Dept of ECE, Kuppam Engineering College, Kuppam,A.P,India. Abstract A novel LDN pattern is proposed for facial expression recognition. LDN extracts the local features from a face which is used for face analysis and facial expression recognition. It computes the directional data of face textures into a compact code. Here compass masks are used to find the directional data which helps in distinguishing the homogenous structural patterns which helps in evaluating intensity variations. Experimental results show that the LDN method provides better results with reasonably low error rates. Keywords LDN pattern, Local Directional number pattern, feature vectors, expression recognition, face descriptor, face recognition, feature, image descriptor, local pattern. à ¯Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¿ Face recognition is widely accepted for image analysis and pattern recognition. Its significance has increased in the last decade because of its application in commercial and law enforcement. Although a plethora of research was carried to overcome the disadvantages of facial recognition system but still a lot of problems persist. The most challenging work in any facial expression recognition system is to find the face vector. The aim of identifying a face vector is to find an efficient way of representing facial images which provides robustness in recognition process. There are two approaches proposed to extract facial features in any expression recognition system. Geometric feature based Appearance based method In geometric feature method, the location and shape of different facial features are combined to form a feature vector which represents a face, whereas in appearance-based system applies image filters on whole face or some specific regions of face to extract expression changes in face image. Geometric feature method requires reliable facial features which is a hurdle to accustom in lot of situations. On the other hand, performance of appearance-based methods is degraded due to environmental variations. The proposed LDN method will robustly identify the facial expressions under various variations like sad, anger, happy, disgust, etc. à ¯Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¿ There are several techniques used in holistic class like fisherfaces and eigenfaces which are developed on PCA method. Although they are widely used their limitations to illumination and variations in poses causes a great concern in facial recognition system. Kotsia et al. [2] proposed an expression recognition system in sequences of facial images. Heisele et al. discussed about the legitimacy of the component-based methods. They expressed the face into one descriptor by extracting and computing local features from different parts of face. Zhang et al.[3] used the higher order local derivatives to get better results than LBP method. In order to overcome illumination variations and noise problems they used other information rather than depending on intensity levels. Donato et al. done a comprehensive analysis on different algorithms like LFA, PCA, Gabor wavelets, ICA to represent face images for facial expression recognition. Among them Gabor wavelet and ICA achieved the best performance. Shan c et al. presented robust LBP as feature descriptor in facial expression recognition. Though LBP is efficient in computations and robust to monotonic illumination change, its performance degrades in presence of random noise. The proposed framework for facial expression recognition is as described below. In the first stage a trained dataset is created with several facial expressions like fear, anger, sad, joy, happy, disgust etc. several preprocessing techniques are applied on these images. Then various features are extracted from face and its edges are perceived using Gaussian derivative and Kirsch masking. These features are classified and normalized using SVM classifiers. When a test image is given for recognition it is compared to the dataset and accurate images are recognized. Finally all the test results obtained are analyzed. Figure:1 Block Diagram Of LDN LDN Framework: The LDN pattern is a binary code of 6 bits assigned to each pixel of an input face image that represents the texture structures and transitions in intensity levels. The existing technique reveals that the edge magnitudes are not sensitive to lighting variations. Here we generate a pattern by using a compass mask which computes the neighborhood edge responses by utilizing the positive and negative values of those edge responses. A valuable data of the neighborhood structure is provided by the positive and negative values. These values reveal the gradient direction if the bright and dark areas in the neighborhood. The information of the neighborhood structure is provided by the positive and negative responses because the disclose the gradient path of bright and dark areas in neighborhood. The LDN generates a 6bit code every instance whenever the positive and negative responses are swapped. By using a compass mask we can compute the threshold responses in the neighborhood in 8 different directions which helps in generating a semantic descriptor for numerous textures with uniform structural pattern. Dataset The dataset images which are used for the research work are lively recorded which depict various facial expressions like anger, joy, disgust, sad, fear and happiness. Figure:2 Dataset Pre-Processing Different processing techniques are used on input images. Here kirsch masking is used for calculating edge responses. It basically extracts response in edges and rotates 45 degrees apart to obtain mask in 8 directions. A derivative Gaussian mask is used to smooth the code which helps in overcoming the illumination changes and noise. This helps in getting strong edge responses. Code Generations: LDN code is generated by analyzing each edge response of mask in its ( M0M7), particular direction. The noticeable darker and brighter areas are indicated by the highest positive and negative values. The noticeable darker and brighter regions are encoded based on the sign information. The positive directional number is coded as MSB of the code and the 3 LSB bits are negative directional numbers The LDN code is represented as, LDN(x, y) = 8ix,y+ jx,y(1) Where, (x, y) is coded central pixel of neighbourhood., ix,y is maximum positive response directional number, jx,y is maximum negative response directional number Classifier: SVM classifier is used to recognize the facial expressions and it also increases the accuracy of the facial expression recognition. It is used to calculate the perrformance of LDN method. It not only used for data mapping but it helps in making the binary decision. The proposed LDN method used directional numbers which helps in encoding the structure of face textures in efficient manner.it produces a compact code by using the sign information that is more reliable against noise, to encode dissimilar patterns of face textures. The compass masks used gives better results in obtaining the edge responses and smothen the code to overcome illumination variations. When compared with LBP and LDiP the LDN recognition rate is better in presence of noise and illumination changes.

Risk Assessment with Relation to Falls in the Home in the Elderly Popul

This assignment will focus on the issue of Risk Assessment with relation to falls in the home in the elderly population. It will discuss the relationship between the community healthcare team and the individual client, the government policies related to the topic, and the influences of health policy upon the provision of community care. The role of the community nurse in public health education and promotion will also be explored. The client, in this particular instance, is Mrs Pugh. She is an 84-year-old female who lives alone since her husband's death 3 years ago. Mrs Pugh has a previous medical history of 'unexplained falls'. Her medical records also highlight the fact she is suffering from osteoporosis and arthritis. Mrs Pugh has recently been discharged home from hospital following surgical repair of a fractured tibia and fibula, the result of another 'unexplained fall' at home. Mrs Pugh has a carer who comes in daily to assist with hygiene, helping Mrs Pugh have a shower each day; she also supports Mrs Pugh with general domestic tasks. It is important to emphasise that the pair of them have developed a very good relationship. Mrs Pugh has always been a fiercely independent lady and doesn't take kindly to any, as she puts it, interference in her personal life. However, the relationship she has with her carer is very important to her. Health promotion is based on theories about what influences peoples' health and then what constitutes an effective intervention or strategy to improve health (Naidoo and Wills 1999). These theories are based on research. Research may be defined as 'any systematic information-gathering activi... ... totally irrelevant to them can lead to time wasting and frustration (Spicer 1982b). The clients' ability to learn must then be ascertained, the nurse must approach the client in a manner appropriate to the client, using language the client will understand. Finally, the nurse should assess the clients' readiness to learn. Luker and Caress (1989) emphasise that the physical and psychological consequences of ill health can affect the learning process. The client's carer and family will also require information, education and support from the nurse to enable them to provide the appropriate support for the client. The nurse may also have to make referrals to colleagues, such as the occupational therapist; so all the information should be available to other health professionals who may be involved in the clients' care.

Jeffersonian vs. Jacksonian Democracy

Jeffersonian vs. Jacksonian Democracy Both Jefferson and Jackson were fighting for the interests of farmers against the commercial and mercantile interests of the country. Jefferson was portrayed as a man of the people, but he remained a wealthy planter who tended to associate only with other elites. His mannerisms were much more upper-class. Jefferson talked about limited government yet his actual practices as President differed. He maintained the bank of the US, authorized the Louisiana Purchase and pushed for stronger party cohesion, all things that many Democrats opposed.Jackson was also a wealthy farmer, but he had come from a poorer region and did not have â€Å"wealthy parents. † He was much more comfortable mixing with people of lower social and economic classes. He was also much more focused on attacking the mercantile classes, particularly his refusal to renew the charter for the Bank of the US. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson were two influential political figur es in two very different eras. Each formed their own democracy that helped shape the way people think about American government.They had their differences and yet they also had their similarities. Viewpoints between the two democracies will be analyzed in political, economic, social, and religious aspects. The Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracies were alike and different to each other in the area of politics and economics. The conditions which a citizen was considered eligible for office holding was similar. In the Jeffersonian Democracy, an eligible citizen was one that was average rather than rich and well born.Jackson declared all ordinary and intelligent white citizens equally qualified to serve. He eventually started what is known as the â€Å"spoils system† in which long-term officeholders were removed for rotation. Then how they chose candidates to be President was done differently. In Jefferson's time the two highest voted candidates became the President and the Vi ce-President of the United States. In Jackson’s time a candidate was chosen by a nominating convention and the President and Vice-President ran for their offices separately.Both men's attitude toward the Bank of the United States was similar. Jefferson encouraged State banks and was originally opposed to the national bank. Jackson and his followers strongly opposed the Second Bank of America. He won the â€Å"Bank War† by having federal income deposited in state banks, while he continued to draw money out of the national bank. The political and economic conditions of the Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracies were equally related and different. However, the social and religious aspects were quite clear.Each man’s attitude toward minorities (including slaves, women, and Native Americans) were closely related. For example, Jefferson doubted that white civilization and Indian â€Å"savagery† could coexist and although he said that men were born to freedom n ot to slavery he still held many slaves. He felt strongly that women had a single purpose in life: marriage and subordination to a husband. Jefferson saw no reason to let them vote since women were never called upon to discuss politics or anything really for that matter.In the same manner, Jackson turned away from extending egalitarian policies to slaves and women received little betterment, although many reforms were taking place in the time of the Jacksonian Democracy. Jackson, who also led an expedition against in Spanish Florida in 1818, forced thousands of Native Americans to march from Georgia to Oklahoma on the infamous â€Å"Trail of Tears. † Each man viewed education in opposite opinions. One of the many bills Jefferson proposed was the Bill for General Education, which â€Å"allowed everyone, without regard to birth or wealth, to have as much free education as each person was fitted for. On the other hand, Jackson and his followers opposed programs such as educati onal reform and the establishment of public education. He believed that schools restricted individual liberty by interfering with parental responsibility and undermined freedom of religion by replacing church schools. How the separation of church and state was accomplished was different. Jefferson proposed the Statute for Religious Freedom, separating church and state and removing the private right of religious belief from control by public law.Jackson believed that a strong federal government restricted individual freedom and he was against religious reform. The social and religious viewpoints of Jefferson and Jackson had their similarities and their differences. It is clear to see how distinct the similarities and differences were between the Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracies. They are shown in the areas of politics, economics, social life, and religion. Their viewpoints, opinions, and or ideas all helped establish the strong democracy that America has today.

Choice and Real Life Product Essay

Abstract: In the lab that was conducted, students were supposed to examine the tendencies of fruit flies, specifically Drosophila’s, to move toward or away from important stimuli that aide in their survival, also known as taxis. Another objective for this lab was to identify the patterns and relationships between environmental factors and a living organism. Students are supposed to use two bottles to allow the flies to choose which side they want to go to, depending on what substances they are attracted to more. Fruit flies are not attracted to fruits; rather they are attracted to the rotting fruit. Problem: In this lab, students are studying the behavior of animals, ethology, and the factors that contribute to the way they behave. Do certain environmental factors behave as a stimulus to animals? Hypothesis: If the fruit flies were given choices on which substance they are most attracted to, they there wouldn’t be any preference to any over the other. Materials & Procedures: Material: In this experiment, the we used: tape, 2 water bottles, scissors, 6 different cotton balls, 1 chamber, about 20 fruit flies, water, lime water, banana, vanilla extract, and ammonia. Procedure: Cut the bottom ends off of two water bottles, and tape them together. I labeled each cap with letter â€Å"A† and â€Å"B.† I then inserted the fruit flies in through one end. For each new substance, we dropped a few drops of it onto the cotton balls. We observed the fruit flies for about 5 minutes, undisturbed, and then counted the flies at each end. We repeated these stepped for each new substance being exposed to the flies. Data/Results Table 1. Fruit Fly Choices |Trail 1 |Trail 2 |Trail 3 |Trail 4 | Limewater |Water |Ammonia |Limewater |Vanilla |Banana |Limewater |Banana | |13 |1 |0 |3 |7 |13 |5 |20 | | Questions: 1. Did the flies demonstrate a chemotaxis in relation to any of the substances you chose? Be specific. Chemotaxis is a movement in response to the presence of a chemical stimulus. The flies demonstrated a chemotaxis to the vanilla, lime water, and banana. For each trail, the flies either went one way or the other in response to the substance they preferred. 2. Which substances had the greatest positive and negative chemotactic response? Through the trailing, it is evident that some of the substances had positive and negative responses. In this lab that was conducted, the vanilla extract and banana had the strongest positive responses, while ammonia and water had the most negative responses. Ammonia killed all of the fruit flies that were inside the choice chambers. 3. Describe some possible reason for their preferences? Some possible reasons for their preferences are that they mostly are, however, attracted to fruit. Most of them like the smell of the fruit, and in this case the banana because it rots quickly. 4. What other factors might affect whether or not the fruit flies moved from one part of your choice chamber to another? 5. How can you apply this lab to a real world setting? How might fruit fly preference translate to a real life product? This lab can be  applied to the real world setting not only shown through fruit flies, but also with humans. The fruit fly preference can translate to a real life product by, for say in a restaurant they wouldn’t stay where the ketchups or what have it, but it would be near the garbage area devouring over the rotting food. Conclusion: From this experiment, the behaviors of fruit flies were observed and investigated. Through the sampling of different substance in the choice chambers, it was found that the flies found the banana more desirable than the others and moved towards that side more quickly. This proved the hypothesis that was stated was incorrect. Although, we did make an error; in the trail with ammonia, we added a prodigious amount, which therefore led to the mass killing of the fruit flies causing us to use new ones for the other substances.

The Purpose of a Resume - Resume Tips for Recent Graduates

The Purpose of a Resume - Resume Tips for Recent Graduates This article was originally posted at New Grad Life. A common misconception about resumes is that they are meant to describe what you did in your past jobs. In actuality, the most effective resumes are written from a FUTURE perspective. In other words, your resume will work if you think about what a potential employer would want to know about how you WILL perform. What experience do you have that will make you a contribution to their firm or organization? Photo by Ed Brambley, CC-BY-SA 2.0 If you are writing a resume from the perspective of the FUTURE, here’s what will happen: 1. Measurable Results. You will write detailed bullets that demonstrate your capability to achieve measurable results. That means: include numbers as often as possible. Don’t just say you tutored students; say how many and by how much their grades improved. Don’t say you were successful; tell us exactly what results you achieved. Don’t just say â€Å"increased;† tell us by what percentage. Your readers will imply that you can produce similar results for them. 2. Finding Relevance. You will think about the purpose and priority of each item on your resume. Does it matter that you worked as a bartender if you are now applying for marketing positions? Maybe, if you you were a student working 20 hours/week and still maintained a 3.8 GPA, or if you were the highest-tipped bartender at the establishment. Additionally, bartending demonstrates your ability to multitask and interact with a wide variety of people. But it does not need to take up three lines on your resume, just because it’s what you did; you can make it a short bullet under your â€Å"Education† section to show you were doing it while in school full time. 3. Deleting Irrelevant Items. You will delete anything that is irrelevant or of minimal importance to your future. These things include stuff you did in high school. High school activities are no longer relevant – you had 4 years of college to become who you are now, and if you did less in college than you did in high school, looking into the future, the logical conclusion is that you will do less and less as time goes on. Let us help you look your best on your resume and in all your writing. The Essay Expert provides writing help with LinkedIn profiles, resumes, cover letters, and other writing projects.

Dissatisfied vs. Unsatisfied

Dissatisfied vs. Unsatisfied Dissatisfied vs. Unsatisfied Dissatisfied vs. Unsatisfied By Sharon Dont mix up dissatisfied with unsatisfied. Dissatisfied applies only to people who are unhappy, frustrated or disappointed with a thing, person or situation. Examples: I was dissatisfied with the service I received at the restaurant. She was dissatisfied with his response to her question. Unsatisfied refers to the feeling of needing more and can be used with abstract items. Examples: Despite the hearty meal, his hunger remained unsatisfied. She has had the bill for three weeks, but it still remained unsatisfied. The adjective is dissatisfaction. Here are some quotations from publications around the web: No, thats not a real statistic. Yet Ilana hasnt been alone in her sexual frustration. Several shows recently have been depicting women as unsatisfied. Like Ilana, theyre determined to do something about it and a finding man isnt necessarily part of the equation. LA Times More people than ever are dissatisfied with the products and services they buy, according to a new report from Arizona State Universitys W.P. Carey School of Business. And when there is a problem, were less happy with the customer service we receive. USA Today Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Grammar Test 125 Russian Words Used in English (and 25 More That Should Be)12 Misunderstood and Misquoted Shakespearean Expressions

An Analysis of Leadership Models

An Analysis of Leadership Models Each theory provides a model for effectively steering an organization. Three contemporary theories are widely applied in organizations today; Transactional Leadership, Charismatic leadership and finally transformational leadership. Each of these theories has its strong points weaknesses and challenges in real world application. These are not by any means the only theory – there are many others applied in other leadership situations. A lot of management research has gone into finding the perfect leadership solution. In this paper, we will review three leadership theories, their pros and cons and discuss examples of each theory. Page 1 Transactional Leadership Transactional Leadership model Leadership style plays a crucial role in the development of an organization. It is a leadership style that is often used by many companies assumes that people are motivated strictly by reward and punishment. This style generally does not appeal to the values, morals, or other intrinsic characteristics of most people. The transactional leader is highly focused on task, provides very clear direction, and oversees productivity in detail. When a subordinate fails, the next step is a penalty or punishment. The introduction of the task versus people orientation and the idea of leadership styles are widely accepted today. The model does have a downside, however: It does not consider other potential factors that may influence outcomes and therefore affect leadership effectiveness. While a two-dimensional task-versus-people perspective might be a helpful way to talk about leader behaviors, it by no means tells the whole story about leadership. Research continues to this day on these important questions, and this has led to additional new theories of leadership (Yukl, Gary A. Yukl). Assumptions ? ? ? ? ? Style The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders. Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place. Transactional leadership believes that punishment and reward motivate people People are motivated by reward and punishment. Social systems work best with a clear chain of command. When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all authority to their manager. The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do. Page 2 The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company (and by implication the subordinate’s manager) gets authority over the subordinate. The „transaction’ is the money or any other award that the company pays to its subordinates for their compliance and effort (Kurnik, 2012). When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding). The transactional leader often uses management by exception, working on the principle that if something is operating to defined (and hence expected) performance then it does not need attention. Exceptions to expectation require praise and reward for exceeding expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action is applied for performance below expectation. Transactional leadership has more of a „telling style’. Transactional leadership is based on the fact that reward or punishment is dependent on the performance. Even though researchers have highlighted its limitations, transactional leadership is still prevalent in real workplace and more companies are adopting transactional leadership to increase the performance of its employees. This approach is. Whereas Transformational Leadership has more of a ‘selling’ style, Transactional Leadership, once the contract is in place, takes a ‘telling’ style. Advantages of Transactional leadership This method works in most of the cases, where it’s applied, provided the employees are motivated by rewards. It is a proven compliance strategy, which works best if the top most leader in the hierarchy is capable of making most of the important decisions and is a strong personality. Page 3 Disadvantages of Transactional leadership A powerful and assertive leader will find the transactional model conducive to his way of running things. However, though he will create great followers, he will stunt their growth as leaders. When people get used to doing just what they are told and only as much they are told, they stop thinking ‘out of the box’. Original thinking is not really promoted in this system, because of which, an obedient workforce will be created with a lack of imagination. New leaders will be tough to find from the lower strata of power hierarchy. This leadership model will create a stressful work environment. Productivity will be maintained but innovations and breakthroughs will be tough to find. Examples of Transactional leadership In practice, there is sufficient truth in Behaviorism to sustain Transactional approaches. This is reinforced by the supply-and-demand situation of much employment, coupled with the effects of deeper needs, as in Maslow’s Hierarchy. When the demand for a skill outstrips the supply, then Transactional Leadership often is insufficient, and other approaches are more effective. The main limitation of this leadership is that it assumes that people are largely motivated by simple rewards. Under transactional leadership, employees can’t do much to improve job satisfaction. Transaction leadership has been ineffective in providing skilled employees to their organization. This style of leadership is least interested in changing the work environment. Experts do not recommend this approach. Transactional leadership focuses more on management of punishments and rewards (Kurnik, 2012). Page 4 Charismatic Leadership The sociologist Max Weber defined charismatic authority in 1947 as â€Å"resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him. † Charismatic authority is one of three forms of authority laid out in Weber’s tripartite classification of authority, the other two being traditional authority and rational-legal authority. The concept has acquired wide usage among sociologists. Weber in his writings about charismatic authority, Weber applies the term charisma to â€Å"a certain quality of an individual personality, by virtue of which he is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities. These are not accessible to the ordinary person, but are regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leader1 Charismatic authority is as said to be power legitimized on the basis of a leader’s exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment, which inspire loyalty and obedience from followers. ] As such, it rests almost entirely on the leader; the absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authority’s power dissolving. However, due to its individual nature and lack of formal organization, charismatic authority depends much more strongly on the pe rceived legitimacy of the authority than Weber? s other forms of authority. Charismatic leaders can lead organizations into new areas, inspire followers, and sometimes obtain extraordinary performance and results from an organization. Conger Kanungo (1998) articulates the five characteristics of charismatic leaders. ? ? Vision and articulation; Sensitivity to the environment; 1 Weber, Maximillan. Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Chapter: â€Å"The Nature of Charismatic Authority and its Routinization† translated by A. R. Anderson and Talcott Parsons, 1947. Originally published in 1922 in German under the title Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft chapter III,  § 10 2 Kendall, Diana, Jane Lothian Murray, and Rick Linden. Sociology in our time (2nd ed. ), 2000. Scarborough, On: Nelson, 438-439. Page 5 ? ? ? Sensitivity to member needs; Personal risk taking; Performing unconventional behaviour. Advantages of charismatic leaders 1) They can sense the gap between what an organization is giving to its followers and what its followers require from the organization. Therefore they are able to create a vision that is in line with these requirements. ) Since members of the organization feel that they re part of this vision they are part of this vision, they support the goals of the organization (employee loyalty) Disadvantages of charismatic leaders 1). Followers may find this transformation uncomfortable and disrupti ve to the workplace or to them personally. Others may have difficulty relating to the leader’s vision of the future. Charismatic leaders also rely heavily on their personal charm, and perceptions, which could be significantly influenced by rumors or â€Å"negative press. † 2) They cause more harm than good. eg Adolf Hitler. 3) They lack of Successors and Visionaries. A charismatic leader often retains the majority of the control in the office because he believes in himself so much. He may have difficulty turning over control to others because he enjoys having the control or doesn’t feel anyone else is able to handle the duties like he can. This type of situation potentially leaves the company without any knowledgeable successors should the charismatic leader leave the company. Without giving others the authority and freedom to take some of the control, the company’s vision for the future is limited to the ideas of the leader. This type of environment may also squash some of the creative problem solving from other employees in the company, particularly if any ideas presented are pushed aside by the leader. 4) A charismatic leader sometimes gets so caught up in his control that he is unable to clearly see potential dangers with the company. The confidence he has in his abilities makes him feel that the company’s success will continue indefinitely. If he doesn’t have any other management Page 6 personnel on the same level with the same information, he may potentially miss a threat to the company’s financial welfare. 5) Overreliance on the leader. The charismatic leader wins over the employees of the company with his motivational leadership style. While employees may find inspiration in this type of leadership, they may also rely too heavily on the person in charge. The employees begin associating the success of the company solely with the leader. They may fail to see that all employees are a valuable part of making the company a success. This saddles the leader with a huge responsibility for both keeping the company running and motivating the staff. Examples of Charismatic Leadership Bill Clinton He was considered one of the most charismatic leaders of our times. Clinton connected and inspired. He had an ability to make his audience feel as though as individuals they were each the most important person in the room. His use of eye contact, infectious smile and self-awareness ensured that he made a powerful impact on those he met. No wander he was the president with the highest opinion poll ratings at the time of leaving the presidency, even though his tenure had been marred by the Monica Lewinsky scandal. Obama is a charismatic leader, during his inauguration as the 44th president U. S. A; over 2 million people were present. He accomplished fetes such as managing to raise funds in an unprecedented fashion, that is, small sums of money from numerous persons . He has been applauded as an outstanding orator, captive speaker and brilliant man. He inspires his followers, moves them to tears and gives the hope. He feverishly wooed the citizens to vote for him. Adolf Hitler Hitler gained this ‘charismatic status’ partially because of his political skill and magnetism. He had experienced considerable success in cutting the unemployment figures and this was essential. However, it was somewhat overshadowed by his unshakeable conviction in his own Page 7 historical role. Hitler often spoke of a ‘mission’ and claimed ‘I go with the certainty of a sleepwalker along the path laid out for me by Providence’. It was this ‘mission’ achievable only for Hitler, which allowed him to transcend bureaucratic processes and become ‘charismatic’. 3 3 Noakes, Jeremy and Pridham, Geoffrey (ed. ) Nazism 1919-1945 Volume II: State, Economy and Society 1933-1939 (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2000) Page 8 Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership occurs when a leader takes a visionary position and inspires people to follow. James MacGregor Burns (1978) 1 first introduced the concept of transforming leadership in his descriptive research on political leaders. According to MacGregor, transforming leadership is a process in which â€Å"leaders and followers help each other to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation†. MacGregor differentiated between leadership and management, and related them to characteristics and behaviors. According to MacGregor, the transforming approach creates significant change in people and organizations by changing the employee expectations and aspirations. This is because it redesigns the perceptions and values. Unlike in transactional approach, it is not based on a â€Å"give and take† relationship but on the leader? s personality and abilities, articulation of an energizing vision and challenging goals. He theorized that transforming and transactional leaders were mutually exclusive styles. Bernard M. Bass (1985), expanded upon MacGregor? s work (1985) by explaining the psychological mechanisms that underlie transforming and transactional leadership. Bass used â€Å"transformational† instead of â€Å"transforming† original ideas to develop what is today referred to as Bass? Transformational Leadership Theory. 2 According to Bass, transformational leadership can be defined based on the impact that it has on followers. According to Bass, transformational leaders earn trust, respect and admiration from their followers. Transformational leadership can be found at all leadership levels in an organization. These leaders are seen to have a charismatic appeal in that they are visionary, enthusiastic, passionate, daring, inspiring, energetic, risk takers and thoughtful thinkers. However, charisma alone may not be sufficient to transform an organization. To gear changes, the leaders must exhibit the factors of transformational leadership. The four different components of transformational leadership as suggested by Bernard M. Bass: ? Intellectual Stimulation – Transformational leaders not only challenge the status quo; they also encourage creativity among followers. The leader encourages followers to explore new ways of doing things and new opportunities to learn. Page 9 ? Individualized Consideration – Transformational leadership also involves offering support and encouragement to individual followers. In order to foster supportive relationships, transformational leaders keep lines of communication open so that followers feel free to share ideas and so that leaders can offer direct recognition of each follower? s unique contributions. ? Inspirational Motivation – Transformational leaders have a clear vision that they are able to articulate to followers. These leaders are also able to help followers experience the same passion and motivation to fulfill these goals. ? Idealized Influence – The transformational leaders serves as a role model for followers. Because followers trust and respect the leader, they emulate the leader and internalize his Assumptions People follow a person who inspires them A person with vision and passion can achieve great things Enthusiasm and energy get things done. Leadership style The leadership style adopted is â€Å"selling type†. This involves: Developing the vision – transformational leadership beginnings with development of a vision. This may be done by senior managers, the leader or the team. The leaders then buy and sink into the vision. Selling the vision – the leader then constantly sells the vision to the followers. The leaders seek adoption of the vision through creating trust and any means available to convince the followers. Seeking the way forward – this goes along with the selling activity. Some leaders know the way and simply want others to follow, while others happily lead the exploration of possible routes since they do not have a ready strategy. With a clear vision, though the direction may not be very clear, it is always known. Since this is an ongoing process, a transformational leader will accept the failures and content with whatever progress that is made. Page 10 Leading the charge – the final stage and most critical is that the leader takes the lead and remains central during the action. This is where the leader is a role model –setting the examples by not idling behind their troops. Their unrelenting commitment keeps the team focused. These leaders are people oriented and thus strike a balance between the task and the followers. Transformational leadership borrows a lot from relationship theories also known as transformational theories. Emphasis is laid more on the link formed between the leaders and the followers. The leader inspires and motivates the group to see the importance and significance of the task, but also wants each individual to fulfill their potential. Advantages of Transformational leadership ? This kind of leadership style often brings out high ethical and moral standards. Since the team is all geared towards achieving the organizational task as well as their individual goals. ? Produces a highly energized work force, which is essential to achieve organizational goals. It enables maximization of synergy in the team. Disadvantages of Transformational leadership ? Since the style emphasizes on impression management, it leads to a moral self glorification/ promotion by the leaders. ? Due to the influence emphasis, the followers may be manipulated by the leaders to lose more than they actually gain. ? ? The energy applied by leaders can wear out the followers making them give up. The passion and confidence can easily be mistaken as reality. This may lead to mistakes with consequences being adopted. Though transformational leaders are charismatic, they are not like pure charismatic leaders who succeed through their individualism since they believe in others. Page 11 The leadership style is almost impossible to teach or train since it? s a combination of leadership theories and personal attributes Examples of Transformational Leaders Nelson Mandela South Africa was a racially polarized country for many decades. Nelson Mandela was able to humanize the apartheid leading to the emergence of a nation now recognized globally. His was able to use his charisma to synchronize the haves and have-nots towards a common cause – transforming the nation from the polarity caused by the racial and wealth factors. Mahtama Gandhi Prior to the British occupation, India was amongst the leading goods exporting nation. The British rule was highly mechanized with modern industrial power; they successfully eliminated the local Indian artisans? infrastructure turning India into a big importer and consumer nation. Different leaders were contemplating different ways to drive British in India; he sought to understand the reason for colonialism. According to Mahatma, the way to resist the British was through non violent ways to become self reliant and stop consuming English products. He therefore opted for persistent mass movements that would eventually prove expensive to the British Rule. Gandhi inspires various leaders including South African Nelson Mandela and various movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. Sam Walton Sam Walton, founder of Wal-Mart, often visited Wal-Mart stores across the country to meet with associates to show his appreciation for what they did for the company. Sam Walton gave â€Å"rules for success† in his autobiography, one of which was to appreciate associates with praise (Walton, 1996). Page 12 Jack Welch He was Chairman and CEO of General Electric between 1981 and 2001. During his tenure at GE, the company’s value rose 4,000% and was the most valuable company in the world for a while. Having taken GE with a market capitalization of about $12 billion, Jack Welch turned it into one of the largest and most admired companies in the world, with a market value of about $500 billion, when he stepped down as its CEO 20 years later, in 2000. Although Jack Welch was a celebrated leader of a global manufacturer often noted for its technological prowess, he utilized a very human process to drive change through GE’s vast organization. Having respect for the individual as a pivotal force in organizational change, Welch created a model of exceptional performance every corporate leader can learn from. Page 13 References Lussier/Achua 3rd edition. Effective Leadership. Course text Kurnik, E. (2012). Transactional Leadership. Retrieved March 3, 2012, from HubPages Inc: http://edikurnik. hubpages. com/hub/Transactional-Leadership Yukl, G. A. (Gary A. Yukl). Leadership in Organizations (6th Edition). New Jersy: Prentice Hall. Burns, J. M. (1978) Leadership. New York. Harper Row Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Page 14

How Verizon Wireless Manages ethical employee behavior and creates an Research Paper

How Verizon Wireless Manages ethical employee behavior and creates an organizational culture - Research Paper Example A closer look into the code of conduct practiced by the organization, would tell us more about standards adopted by the organization in the employee behavioral aspect and its management. Verizon has set standards for the employees, which are a reflection of the core values adopted by the company like Integrity, Respect, Performance excellence and Accountability. The organization requires the employees to use their sense of judgment and be accountable for their actions. By this the employees develop a sense of responsibility and are always driven by a motivation that they are a part of this family and every decision they take would have an impact on the business. â€Å"Ethical behavior does not simply happen; it is the product of clear and direct Communication of behavioral expectations modeled from the top and demonstrated by example† (â€Å"Your code of, † 2010). Verizon provides a healthy work environment with fair and unbiased outlook. Verizon requires its employees to treat their fellow employees with ethical behavior that necessarily includes respect, dignity, integrity, fairness and honesty. Verizon’s compliance with policies such as Equal Opportunity commitment and diversity entails the organization to provide equal opportunities to all the employees irrespective of their age, sex, religion, nationality, color and other protected categories.

Ecological problems Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ecological problems - Case Study Example For a start, it is prudent to acknowledge that such kinds of mishaps arise due to inexistence of clear-cut communication channels between various departments that constitute the City’s Fleet Operation Maintenance Bays. The situation can also be as a result of lack of quick and steadfast implementation of changes made over a given period of time in the City’s Fleet Operation Maintenance Bays and other departments that work in unison with it. Such kinds of mishaps have to be addressed amicably to ease managerial strains and enhance smooth operations in the bays and their affiliate departments. I therefore recommend that the four dumpsters lying at the power site remain there until an amicable solution to the quandary is constituted and implemented to the letter. This recommendation is based on the fact that, returning the dumpsters to the front of the City’s Fleet Operation Maintenance Bays would bring serious environmental repercussions and even unwarranted indust rial mishaps that would affect the Bays’ functioning and processes. Bringing back the dumpsters back to the bays would also pose grave health risks to the workforce that operates in the bays. In the meanwhile, before a lasting resolution to the impasse is found, I recommend that the concerned stakeholders in the department chart a temporary approach ahead to deal with dumpsters that will be filled before a permanent solution is instituted. What responsibility does Fleet Operations have? Fleet operations are charged with the ardent task of warranting cars and other automobiles within the City’s fleet are well maintained and execute performance to the uttermost. This calls for the personnel operating in the Bays to have experience in treating automobiles in the event of any required operation, executing habitual maintenance checks and make plans for repairs on malfunctioned or damaged motor cars and automobiles registered under fleet’s name. Furthermore, the fleet operations have the responsibility of reducing the number of oily rags disposed as a sign of being environmentally conscientious and more so, as a means of plummeting disposal expenses. To achieve this, the fleet operations ought to adopt effectual means and measures of reducing the number of disposable rags from the bays. Such measures include reducing drastically the average quantity of absorbents used and generated sequentially to reduce quantities of spills, drips/leaks and overfills that typically take place during operations (Committee on Health Effects of Waste Incineration, 2000). This is possible through implementation of trouble-free and minimal-cost pollution/contamination prevention mechanisms such as: Performing scheduled scrutiny of fluid storage spaces for spillages overfills or leaks. Perform habitual anticipatory maintenance checkups on equipment, automobile machinery and containers like replacing permeable container seals, and dispenser machines. Train baysâ€℠¢ personnel on how to implement and maintain excellent baykeeping measures and strategies. Curtail the trip numbers and distance correlated to substance shifting in order to lessen chances of inadvertent spills. Use of suitable storage and transfer equipment to avoid unnecessary spills, container breakages and loosening of seals. Case Scenario # 4 What are your first actions? My foremost reaction to such a scenario would be to ask the power plant supervisor to put off the cigarette since it is not advisable to smoke in such an establishment purely on health and hazard justifications. From his explanations that expose what one of the workers has unearthed, I direct him to thoroughly wash his hands because of his involvement in sorting out the garbage which is in essence, ‘ripe’ and has probably come into contact with the contaminated box. After he

The Nurse-Client Negotiations Model Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Nurse-Client Negotiations Model - Assignment Example I chose this model because it recognizes discrepancies that exist between notions of the nurse and client about health, illness, and treatments. This model attempts to bridge the gap between the scientific perspectives of the nurse and the popular perspectives of the client. Fundamental to understanding this model, one must recognize that most social systems include three structural arena of health care within which sickness is reacted to and experienced. The concept of popular, professional, and folk arenas is used to compare medical systems as cultural systems. Each arena or domain possesses its own model for explaining health and illness (Kleinman, 1978). This arena comprises the family context of sickness and care, including the social network and community perspective. In both Western and non-Western societies, approximately seventy percent to ninety percent of sickness is managed solely within this domain. The nurse-client negotiations model serves as a framework to attend to the culture of the nurse as well as the culture of the client. In addition to the professional culture, each nurse has his or her own personal beliefs and values, which may operate without the nurse being fully aware of them. These beliefs and values may influence nurse's interactions with patients and families. Each arena (sector) in the model can be viewed as a social cultural system with its own values, norms of behavior, beliefs, and ways of explaining health and illness. Explanations of the same phenomena may yield different interpretations based on the cultural perspective of the layperson or the professional. Anderson (1987) provided examples of different perspectives of the same intervention: Putting lightweight bedclothes on a patient may be interpreted by family members as placing their loved one at risk for "getting a chill," whereas the nurse will use this technique to prevent or reduce a fever; a Jeh ovah's Witness family considers a blood transfusion for their child as contamination of the child's body, whereas the nurse and other healthcare team members believe a transfusion is a lifesaving treatment. Important Aspect The important aspect of this model is that it can open lines of communication between the nurse and the patient/family. It helps each understand how the other interprets or values a problem or practice such that they respect one another's goals. Negotiations Negotiation implies a mutual exchange of information between the nurse and client. The nurse should begin negotiation by learning from the client' s about their understanding of their situation, their interpretations of illness and symptoms, the symbolic meaning they attach to an event, and their notions about treatment. Contingency contracting is a form of negotiation used in nursing in which negotiations focus on the values of goods to be forgone and

Provide a concise account of the fundamental legal, ethical and Essay

Provide a concise account of the fundamental legal, ethical and professional practice aspects of nursing drug administration - Essay Example The safe and efficient administration of medication is one of the key responsibilities of the professional nurse. The practice of drug administration involves providing the patient with a substance prescribed and intended for the diagnosis, treatment, or prevention of a medical illness or condition (Hopkins, 1999). Although, effective drug administration involves the actual and complete conveyance of a prescribed medication to the patient, however, there is wider set of practices required to achieve safe, effective patient outcomes and to prepare for and evaluate the outcome of medication administration (Potter and Anne, 1997; Taylor et al, 1997). Because nurses administer prescribed drugs directly to patients, they happen to be the last link in the safe and effective drug prescription and administration sequence. Increased acuity of the patient nurses have to serve and the apparent reduction in the volume of resources available to nurses to ensure safe and effective practice, have greatly complicated the role of the nurse in drug administration (Cook, 2002). The purpose of this paper is therefore, to examine the legal, ethical and professional requirements of safe nursing drug administration. According to the NMC Guidelines for the Administration of Medicines, administration of medicines is a vital part of the professional duty of the nurse. It is not, however, a function that can be carried out ‘mechanically’ or following orders, but should be seen as a task that must be carried out in strict compliance with the written prescription of a medical practitioner. More importantly, it is task that requires thought and the exercise of professional judgement (NMC, 2002:3). Drug administration play a crucial role in achieving positive patient outcomes and despite the complexities involved with safely administering medications to patients, the professional nurse is duty-bound to do everything within her professional capacity to ensure this. The NMC code of

Human Evolution Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Human Evolution - Assignment Example This study outlines that human evolution took many years in the process. There are many stages which evolution undergone and indeed human being has come from chimpanzee like creatures to Apes which also entails many stages and finally to the upright being. Archeologists have taken a lot of their time on this as they do research on the existence of fossils and whether the human beings originated from those artifacts. Charles Darwin in His book Human Evolution depicts the non-existence of God. He argues that there was no creation done by God as most religions believe. As the paper highlights the taxonomic status of Mystery Skull #1 is Neandertals which first existed in early years of evolution and are coded this name because of their characteristics such as edge-shaped jaws, long elongated forehead, much wider nasal openings and very well-developed crest. The taxonomic status of Mystery Skull # 2 is Anatomically modern Homo sapiens have smaller faces and mandibles, thinner bones and more vertical foreheads, and taller with an indices of a larger Porion.

The Nurse-Client Negotiations Model Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Nurse-Client Negotiations Model - Assignment Example I chose this model because it recognizes discrepancies that exist between notions of the nurse and client about health, illness, and treatments. This model attempts to bridge the gap between the scientific perspectives of the nurse and the popular perspectives of the client. Fundamental to understanding this model, one must recognize that most social systems include three structural arena of health care within which sickness is reacted to and experienced. The concept of popular, professional, and folk arenas is used to compare medical systems as cultural systems. Each arena or domain possesses its own model for explaining health and illness (Kleinman, 1978). This arena comprises the family context of sickness and care, including the social network and community perspective. In both Western and non-Western societies, approximately seventy percent to ninety percent of sickness is managed solely within this domain. The nurse-client negotiations model serves as a framework to attend to the culture of the nurse as well as the culture of the client. In addition to the professional culture, each nurse has his or her own personal beliefs and values, which may operate without the nurse being fully aware of them. These beliefs and values may influence nurse's interactions with patients and families. Each arena (sector) in the model can be viewed as a social cultural system with its own values, norms of behavior, beliefs, and ways of explaining health and illness. Explanations of the same phenomena may yield different interpretations based on the cultural perspective of the layperson or the professional. Anderson (1987) provided examples of different perspectives of the same intervention: Putting lightweight bedclothes on a patient may be interpreted by family members as placing their loved one at risk for "getting a chill," whereas the nurse will use this technique to prevent or reduce a fever; a Jeh ovah's Witness family considers a blood transfusion for their child as contamination of the child's body, whereas the nurse and other healthcare team members believe a transfusion is a lifesaving treatment. Important Aspect The important aspect of this model is that it can open lines of communication between the nurse and the patient/family. It helps each understand how the other interprets or values a problem or practice such that they respect one another's goals. Negotiations Negotiation implies a mutual exchange of information between the nurse and client. The nurse should begin negotiation by learning from the client' s about their understanding of their situation, their interpretations of illness and symptoms, the symbolic meaning they attach to an event, and their notions about treatment. Contingency contracting is a form of negotiation used in nursing in which negotiations focus on the values of goods to be forgone and

Human Evolution Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Human Evolution - Assignment Example This study outlines that human evolution took many years in the process. There are many stages which evolution undergone and indeed human being has come from chimpanzee like creatures to Apes which also entails many stages and finally to the upright being. Archeologists have taken a lot of their time on this as they do research on the existence of fossils and whether the human beings originated from those artifacts. Charles Darwin in His book Human Evolution depicts the non-existence of God. He argues that there was no creation done by God as most religions believe. As the paper highlights the taxonomic status of Mystery Skull #1 is Neandertals which first existed in early years of evolution and are coded this name because of their characteristics such as edge-shaped jaws, long elongated forehead, much wider nasal openings and very well-developed crest. The taxonomic status of Mystery Skull # 2 is Anatomically modern Homo sapiens have smaller faces and mandibles, thinner bones and more vertical foreheads, and taller with an indices of a larger Porion.

Advocating anti-genocide movement in Darfur Essay Example for Free

Advocating anti-genocide movement in Darfur Essay The United Nations defines genocide as â€Å"acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group. † In Darfur the Arab janjaweed militias have killed an estimated 100,000 non- Arab people, burned their villages, and sought to destroy their way of life. On September 9, 2004 U. S. Secretary of State Collin Powell told the Senate Foreign Relations Committee that â€Å"genocide has been committed in Darfur and that the Government of Sudan and the [janjaweed] bear responsibility – and that genocide may still be occurring. (DiPiazza) People sometimes get the wrong idea of what genocide means. It is assumed that it is a hopeless case, impossible to stop for it is driven by millenniums of racial or ethnic conflicts. But looking back at history, genocide has mostly been created through calculated, intended decision by national leaders used as the most convenient way to solve a problem or to keep their power and destroy a person or group. And Darfur is not an exception to this. Mr. Bashir and Musa Hilal are not motivated by ancient hatred but of greed to power and influence. They are not extremists but rather coldblooded, amoral opportunists (Kristof). Drought, famine and civil war represent the interactive array of ecological, socio-economic, and political factors at play. Hundreds of thousands of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) were created from 2003 through 2005 (Arsdale). Competition over scarce resources – such as water and fertile land – had long challenged Darfur. The beginning of an oil industry in Durfur added to the tension. Claiming to represent non-Arab Africans in Darfur, rebel protested decades of government neglect. They demanded full economic, political, and social rights for Darfur. They also wanted oil wealth from the region to be shared equally. To combat the rebels, the government armed local Arab militias called janjaweeds. The Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA) arose in response to grievances bring expressed by citizens of Darfur. The SLA’s founding manifesto included its vehement protests against the central government’s â€Å"policies of marginalization, racial discrimination, exclusion, exploitation, and divisiveness. The Janjaweeds, on the other hand, traced their origin with raiders and bandits of various types in Sudan for centuries. In recent decades, so-called Arab cattle raiders occasionally would sweep into a non-Arab village and abscond with a few head (Arsdale). Since 2003, the government of Sudan and its Janjaweed militias has executed a systematic campaign of mass murder, rape, and starvation against the black African tribes of Darfur. As of today, more than 500,000 Darfuris have died, and more than 2. 5 million have been driven from their homes. It goes without saying that other measures have to be undertaken simultaneously to reach a sustainable peace in Darfur. So, the international community should strongly support the Abuja talks between the Sudan government and the main insurgent groups to help them reach a peace agreement, which could be a foundation for equity and good governance in Darfur. And since the negotiation of a lasting peace in Darfur unfortunately could take months, if not years, humanitarian assistance should be provided. Democracy is a first step in the struggle against totalitarian forces that resort to inhuman practices to impose their whim on others, including ethnocide and genocide (Hoeven et al. ). It is important to create the conditions of security that will allow for a safe and voluntary return. A political solution reached in the Abuja talks is a priority to help bring peace to the region. At the same time, there is a strong sense in Darfur that an inclusive, credible and grass roots process of inter-communal dialogue is needed to re-establish peaceful inter-communal relations and re-weave the social fabric of the region. Specific measures to address property and land usage rights will be indispensable to achieve peace and restore relationships between nomadic herders and sedentary agriculturalist tribes (Hoeven et al. ). The African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) evolved as the African Union has authorized the incremental deployment of thousands of personnel to carry out its responsibilities in Darfur. The African Union Peace and Security Council provided AMIS II with the following specific mandate for its peace support efforts: (1) to monitor and observe compliance with the 2004 humanitarian cease-fire agreement; (2) to assist in the process of confidence building; and (3) to contribute to a secure environment for the delivery of humanitarian relief and, beyond that, the return of IDPs and refugees to their homes, and to contribute to the improvement of the security situation throughout Darfur (Darfur Crisis: Progress in Aid Peace Monitoring Threatened by Ongoing Violence and Operational Challenges). President Bush had made his statement regarding the issue at the Diplomatic Reception Room, White Palace: Americas commitment is clear. Since this conflict began we have provided more than $1. 7 billion in humanitarian and peacekeeping assistance for Darfur. We are the worlds largest single donor to the people of Darfur. Were working for the day when the families of this troubled region are allowed to return safely to their homes and rebuild their lives in peace. The people of Darfur are crying out for help, and they deserve it. I urge the United Nations Security Council, the African Union, and all members of the international community to reject any efforts to obstruct implementation of the agreements that would bring peace to Darfur and Sudan. I call on President Bashir to stop his obstruction, and to allow the peacekeepers in, and to end the campaign of violence that continues to target innocent men, women and children. And I promise this to the people of Darfur: The United States will not avert our eyes from a crisis that challenges the conscience of the world (Bush). Today, there are a lot of anti-genocide movements, recruiting thousands of people around the world advocating justice and human rights for the casualties and victims of this national turmoil. Politicians, Hollywood stars and even fellow citizens have been voicing out their concern and extending their help over the matter. Works Cited Arsdale, Peter W. Van. Forced to Flee: Human Rights and Human Wrongs in Refugee Homelands. Lexington Books, 2006. Bush, President George. President Bush Discusses Genocide in Darfur, Implements Sanctions 29 May 2007 The White House. 2 December 2007. http://www. whitehouse. gov/news/releases/2007/05/20070529. html Darfur Crisis: Progress in Aid Peace Monitoring Threatened by Ongoing Violence and Operational Challenges. Ed. United States Government Accountability Office: DIANE Publishing, 2006. DiPiazza, Francesca Davis. Sudan in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books, 2006. Hoeven, Agnes van Ardenne-van der, et al. Explaining Darfur: Four Lectures on the Ongoing Genocide. Amsterdam University Press, 2006. Kristof, Nick. Darfur: Driving up the Price of Blood. Coalition for Darfur, 2007.

Definition Of Outdoor Recreation Physical Education Essay

Definition Of Outdoor Recreation Physical Education Essay The term Recreation, which came from the word Recreate means to create a new. Outdoor recreationist defined recreations as recreating something new in people which they have lost while getting so indulged in their work. But the question arises, to re-create what? Therefore, what has been lost during the non leisure time that needs to be recreated during the leisure time? In line with that, Kelly, (1996) states that Recreation stems from the Latin recreatio, which refers to restoration or recovery. The term implies the re-creation of energy or the restoration of ability to function. Recreation contains the concept of restoration of wholeness of mind, spirit, and body. It presupposes some other activity that depletes, tires, or deteriorates that wholeness(p. 25). In other words, people need to move from their working environment and do some kind of activities which can fill that wholeness whining them. Hence, this can only be achieved through outdoor recreation activities. Outdoor recreation, is any leisure time activity which is being conducted outdoor where individuals engages themselves either physically or mentally from a range of choices of activities for their personal satisfaction and enjoyment. This wide range of activities can be subdivided into two categories which are namely, resource based and user-oriented recreation. The resource based recreation is known to be conducted in the natural surrounding that cannot be easily duplicated by man and on the contrary, user-oriented recreation can be provided anywhere such as theme parks. Types of outdoor activity There are a wide variety of outdoor activities which can be categorized into land based activity or water based activity. Some of the well known activities are listed below; Bicycling Camping Canoeing/Kayaking Boating Fishing Freshwater Swimming Hiking Horseback Riding Hunting Motorized OHV Riding Nature Study Picnicking Beach Activities Visiting Archeological and Historic Sites Canoeing/Kayaking Canoeing/kayaking refers to the use of one or more single or dual blades, paddles, to propel a canoe or kayak forward with only human muscle power. For planning purposes canoeing/kayaking also represents many different forms of paddling activities, such as rafting or whitewater rafting. A majority of the use is facilitated through canoe/kayak launches and designated paddling trails, although such facilities are not absolutely required. Boating Freshwater and saltwater boating is the leisure activity of traveling by boat, or the recreational use of a boat focused on travel itself. Boats vary greatly, from powerboats to sailboats or humanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ powered vessels. Although there are many different forms of boating, their basic similarly is the requirement of a water body as their principal supporting resource. To provide access to a body of water, boat ramp facilities and marina facilities are commonly developed by outdoor recreation providers. Swimming Freshwater swimming is an outdoor recreation type embracing all of the various activities carried on in fresh water in which the participant is the sole means of locomotion. Specialized variations of swimming include diving, skin diving, and SCUBA diving. Resources and facilities commonly found at outdoor recreation areas that provide freshwater swimming include beach areas, docks and swimming and diving platforms. Benefits Framework Outdoor and adventure activities benefits have been analysed and portrayed by using a variety of models/framework in the past. As presented in the work of Stiehl and Parker (2007), these model and framework have been summarized in table 1-4. Table 1 Benefits of Outdoor Adventure (Darst Armstrong, 1980) Dimension Benefit Personal New experience adds a kick to participantsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ lives, allows them to experience something High-risk experience facing perceived danger may help participants overcome fears, gain self-confidence, and enhance their ability to cope Escape offers release form the tensions and complexities of modern life Success allows participants to achieve a highly personal senses of accomplishment Knowledge participants learn more about themselves and the environment Physical fitness physical activity can help burn calories and increase strength, stamina, and flexibility Economic Minimal financial investment provides interesting and pleasant activities at a reasonable cost Social-psychological Socializing provides a chance to meet others who have similar interests Unity promotes cohesiveness and doing things together without the distractions of everyday life Cooperation and trust promotes better relationships through cooperation, appreciation of others, compassion and respect Nature and outdoors promotes aesthetics appreciation for nature and concern for vanishing wild places Table 2 Benefits of Outdoor Adventure (Ewert, 1989) Dimension Benefit Psychological Benefits on a personal (versus group) basis: Self concept (enhanced or strengthened view), self-efficacy (self-confidence), self-actualisation (well-being, improved self-expression, feelings of psychological health) Sociological Compassion, cooperation, respect for others, communication Educational Improved academic abilities, awareness of nature and the environment, problem solving, outdoor skills, values clarification Physical Strength, co-ordination, balance, cardiovascular endurance Table 3 Goals and Benefits of Outdoor Adventure (Webb, 1999) Dimension Benefit Recreational Enjoyment, relaxation, entertainment, excitement, catharsis, self-expression Skill Goal setting, decision making, problem solving, responsibility, physical development, nature awareness, communication, leadership Character Independence, interdependence, self-efficacy, willingness to take risks, tolerance, respect, trust, compassion Table 4 Benefits of Camping (American Camp Association, 2005) Dimension Benefit Positive identity To the participant: e.g. self-esteem, determination, dependability, ambition, independence Social skills Beyond the individual: group bonding, cooperation, conflict resolution, appreciation of differences, leadership, community, connected to others Physical and thinking skills Activity skills, technical skills; physiological benefits of physical activity Thinking skills: knowledge of safety measures, planning, problem solving, environmental awareness Positive values and spirituality Acquiring and strengthening virtue; selflessness, compassion, keeping commitments, fulfilling obligations, self-discipline, honesty à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Connection to earth, others and even a higher power Health benefits of outdoor recreation Generally, outdoor recreation is known to improve people`s health and this can be achieved by doing regular physical activities. Similarly outdoor recreation contribution to health is often considered in the context of Wellness. According to the World Health Organisation (2003), health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. This definition shifts from a strict medical model of health to a simple concept of well-being. Hence, the Alberta Centre for Well Being (1989) found that the concept of well-being or optimal health involves a delicate balance among physical, emotional, spiritual, intellectual and social health. In the same way, outdoor recreation covers all those aspects of health and also helps in not only enhancing the physical health but also the emotional well being of humans. During a research and promotional campaign, Carney (2001) confirmed the fact that physically inactive people have greater risk of having numerous health problems like coronary heart disease and some form of cancer rather than smoking, having a poor diet or drinking. Hence people can improve their health and those particularly in relation of coronary heart disease through regular exercise and activities like walking and cycling which are relatively inexpensive activities and which does not require any special skills to perform and it can also easily fit in people`s the daily routine. Hence in regards to that, The Health Education Board of Scotland has been promoting and encouraging walking through it`s campaign named walk about a bit. General health benefits of Outdoor Activity There is a wide range of outdoor activity; for example, Bird Watching may involve walking along with interpreting sounds and visual clues as well as meeting and socialising with other fellow Birdwatchers which contributes to wellness. Similarly, walking itself is known to be the most common outdoor activity and brisk walking for whether one hour per day or three hours a week helps to lower the risk of heart diseases by 30 to 40 percent in women (AARP 2008, citing the 20-Year Nurses Health Study). Therefore, walking have many health benefits specially for older adults which are: managing weight; controlling blood pressure; decreasing risk of heart attack; boosting good cholesterol; lowering risk of stroke; reducing risk of breast cancer and Type 2 diabetes; avoiding need for gallstone surgery; protecting against hip fracture; preventing depression, colon cancer, constipation, osteoporosis, and impotence; lengthening lifespan; lowering stress levels; relieving arthritis and back pain; strengthening muscles, bones, and joints; improving sleep; and elevating overall mood and sense of well-being. Thus, outdoor activities that include walking help to maintain a good health and wellness. In addition, many researchers (Driver and Knopf 1976; Driver and Cooksey 1977; Driver 1985; Godbey et al. 1992; Tinsley et al. 2003; Kaczynski and Henderson 2007) have found beneficial effects of outdoor recreation on two problems in particular which are stress and obesity. Stress and outdoor activity According to Godbey and Blazey (1983), strolling in parks is seen as beneficial to older visitors since it helps in stress reduction and More and Payne (1978), also added that it helps to decrease the level of anxiety, sadness and negative mood by spending time in parks. Hence, the longer people stay in parks, the less stressed they feel (Hull and Michael 1995). The American Institute of Stress (2008) found that 43 percent of adults in U.S suffer from acute or chronic stress. Moreover stress also lead to heart attack, blood pressure and is also linked with obesity (Bell et al. 1998; Brand et al. 2000). Hence, numerous studies have shown that when being in the natural surroundings, people tend to recover quickly and have fever illness (Frumkin 2001; Moore 1981; Ulrich 1984; Parsons et al.1998). therefore performing an activity within the natural environment have a rejuvenating effect over the peoples health while they are in contact with wilderness area (Hartig et al. 1991; Kaplan 1984), community parks (Canin 1991; Cimprich 1993), prairies (Miles et al. 1998). Obesity and outdoor activity Obesity is seen as an epidemic and it is closely linked and contributes to increased risk of disease such as hypertension, diabetes, coronary heart disease, respiratory disease and many others. Although there are multiple causes of obesity and it is not completely understood by researchers, sedentary that is insufficient physical activity is known as one of the factors causing obesity. Between 1991 and 2001 obesity in United States have been steadily studied and it was found that obesity rates have increased to 75 percent among adults and that only 25 percent are engaged in doing recommended activities. Figure 1 below shows more detailed information about obesity rates in California. Figure 1: The Growth of Obesity in California: Percentage of Californias Population Percent (%) Year Source: CDC, 2002a Obesity also affects a large number of children (Milnes, 2008). Children, who are overweight at their younger age, tend to become overweight adults later and this contributes to low self esteem and alienation (Healthlink, Medical College of Wisconsin, January 14, 2009). Furthermore, studies carried out on preschool children showed that being outdoor plays a major role in performing physical activities like playing games with friends (Sallis et al. 2000). Likewise, outdoor temperatures whether hot or cold act as a stimulus and prompt the body to burn more calories than rather being in heated and air conditioned environment. Economic benefits of outdoor recreation According to the research of Mackay (n.d.), outdoor recreation is beneficial to the Scottish economy. Due to the fact that throughout years, to perform any particular activity, people have to move and travel to the specific site, need to spend money on equipment, food and accommodation and this help to bring income in rural areas of Scotland which gives way to new businesses and sustain the economies of these areas. Moreover, according to the survey carried out in 1998 in Scotland, it estimates that 137 million day visit were made to the coast and countryside and on average,  £6.50 were spent by each persons on each visit (National Centre for Social Research 1998). A more detailed survey carried out in 2000 showed that people spent more than  £900 million while participating in walking and other outdoor activities in the countryside and at the coast. Hence, the expenditures were on average people spend  £6.20 per party,  £1.55 was on fuel and  £3.07 was on food and drinks ( NOF System Three Scotland 2000). To explore the economic impact of a multi-use rail trail in Victoria, Australia Beeton (2006) surveyed 140 groups, during Easter 2006, total accounting for 625 people. The length of journey was from 0.5 days to 30 days. The average expenditure per person per day was at about $258, $147 on food and beverage; of which $27 was accommodation; $47 on transport; $10 on cycling and $27 on other. The average economic contribution per person was $482.94(after the application of multipliers). The social benefits of outdoor recreation Outdoor recreation is often regarded as having positive impacts on the society. The physical benefits of outdoor recreation on health have been well documented by researchers but not much emphasis is made on the social benefits linked with these activities. Some of the social benefits of recreation are known as reduced crime rate, promotes stewardship, encourage voluntarism and strengthen the communities. According to the Californian mayors, they believe that parks and recreation facilities helps to strengthen and bring communities together (DPR, 2002). Similarly, 77 percent of Los Angeles citizens were surveyed after the riots of 1993 and they listed that improved parks and recreation facilities are important or Absolutely critical to the restoration of their community (TPL, 1994). Participating in recreation activities helps to promote voluntarism. Hence, adults who frequently use parks and recreation facilities and who participate in recreation programs are generally the one who volunteered rather the one who does not use these services (Busser and Norwalk, 2001). Moreover, following a survey, 95 percent of Americans agreed that outdoor recreations help to generate appreciation for the nature and surrounding (ARC, 2000). Faulks et al (2007, p. 11) found that research conducted on the Central Otago Rail Trail in New Zealand showed that the range of social benefits to the community due to the rail trail, both as a resource and as a place of physical activity, included: Mental and physical well-being for participants; Education benefits regarding an understanding about working on a railroad; Bringing families together; Meeting like-minded people; Introducing new people into the community; and Generating a sense of pride and a heightened community identity. Outdoor Education There has been a wide range of outdoor programs that have been conducted within educational contexts in recent research which include the Duke of Edinburgh style programs (Bailey, 2004), that is Extended Stay Outdoor Education Programs (ESOEPà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s) (Gray, 1997; McLeod Allen-Craig, 2007), cross-curriculum programs (Eglington Broderick, 2008; Haddock, 2007a), environmental education centres (Ballantyne Packer, 2007) as well as several traditional outdoor education programs (Hales, 2006; Haskell, 2000; Purdie, Neill, Richards, 2002). Moreover, from such diverse programs, the results reported were also wide-ranging. Hence, by participating in the Duke of Edinburgh program, it showed improved relationships among the participants and also problem solving skills and self confidence had been enhanced which have resulted in gain in academic achievement due to involvement in outdoor education programs (Haddock, 2007a, 2007b). in addition through these programs, students have been able to learn and apply eight dimension which are: Time management; Social competence; Achievement motivation; Intellectual flexibility; Task leadership; Emotional control; Active initiative; and Self-confidence. On average, outdoor education programs appear to have a small to moderate effect on participants perceptions of their own qualities and capabilitiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(roughly equivalent to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ other types of self-concept change programs). These results are a positive endorsement of outdoor education as a legitimate and effective educational training method Outdoor education definitely has something to offer. (Neill and Richards, 1998, p7) Sport, recreation and tourism Understanding the motivations and expectations of participants is essential when trying to provide outdoor programs. Kiewa (2001) carried out a qualitative study using in-depth interviews and diary entries of rock-climbers. She analysed the responses of 14 females and 17 males over a 12-month period, attempting to develop an understanding of the role of gender and motivations and reasons in practicing these sports. The result showed that outdoor adventure programs are constructed with the view that both men and women will benefit from programmes designed to support skills associated with the opposite genderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ (Kiewa, 2001, p.11). Furthermore, in seeking to understand the needs, expectations motivations and of participants, another survey was carried out on a different adventure sport which was rafting trip near Melbourne. The research showed that there were significant differences in the motivations and needs of the participants. While the newer participant tend to focus more on the challenges of the activity, the frequent and experienced ones focus more on the ancillary benefits like spending time with friends and family, resting and relaxing in outdoor environment (Fluker Turner, 2000). In addition, in a less challenging context, two surveys were carried out on visitors to Mt Kosciuszko where more than 2,000 people may visit the summit during peak periods on any one-day. The earlier survey was conducted during Easter 2005 and had 494 participants while the other one was conducted over summer 2005/6 and had 2,492 responses (2007b; 2007c). In each case, visitors both expected and experienced wilderness, even though there are several structures to protect the environment. The main factor that motivates the participants to visit Mt Kosciuszko, was the scenic beauty and nature then followed by enjoying the outdoors and climbing. For more than 50% of respondents, encountering and experiencing wilderness was very important to them. Although, due to high level visitation subsequent track management work, visitors still had high satisfaction level just by participating and experiencing the nature of the area Factors motivating outdoor participation A growing number of research supports the proposition that individuals who live in activity friendly environments are more likely to be physically active during their leisure time (Sallis et al. 2000; Humpel et al. 2002; Killingsworth 2003; Owen et al. 2004). Active Living Research summarizes the important facts of such research which are: the proximity, supply, safety and design of recreational spaces. Other well known factor influencing participation is the availability of leisure time. The following subsections consider these variables. Leisure Time On average, Americans have 35 to 40 hours of free time per week (Robinson and Godbey 1999; BLS 2006). However, the majority of this time comes in small portions during weekdays, rather than in big blocks on weekends. Hence, watching TV takes up about half of all free time (Table 5) and adding to this, 27 hours per month goes on Internet use for both work and leisure (Nielsen and Hansen 2007). By contrast, sports, exercise and outdoor recreation account for only about 8.5 hours per month. Therefore, outdoor recreation, then, is comparatively rare. Moreover, if travelling is considered as an indoor activity, most Americans spend 95 percent of their time indoors (Robinson and Godbey 1999). Table 5: Americans Leisure Time, 2006 Leisure activity Average minutes per day Watching TV 156 (2.6 hours) Socializing, communicating 46 Other leisure activities 29 Reading 22 Relaxing, thinking 19 Playing games, using computer for leisure 19 Sports, exercise, recreation 17 Total 308 (5.1 hours) Note: Data include persons ages 15 and older. Data include all days of the week and are annual averages. Source: American Time Use Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2006. Furthermore, while being on vacation, people spend more time outdoors, like walk more, and watching TV less (Robinson and Godbey 1999). Vacations then alleviate perceived job stress and burnout (Westman and Etzion 2001). In short, vacationing may be good for ones health (Gump and Matthews 2000). Proximity to Outdoor Spaces Proximity to outdoor recreation is a critical variable in explaining participation rates. Creating and improving the recreational facilities and spaces can spark a 25 percent increase in those who exercise at least three times per week (CDC 2002). Hence, the closer people live to a bikeway, the more likely they are to use it (Troped et al. 2001). Moreover, Kaczynski and Henderson (2007) summarize the facts founds concerning the role of park proximity in physical activity. In addition, eight of 13 articles indicated positive associations between physical activity and park proximity. For example, a survey conducted on U.S. adults showed that perceived access to parks and recreational facilities were related to increased physical activity (Brownson et al. 2001). Similarly, adults in New York City, Baltimore, and North Carolina, were 28 percent more likely to engaged in recreation activities if the parks and recreation facilities was within five miles of their home. Likewise, having faci lities within one mile encouraged higher levels of physical activity among African Americans and Hispanics (Diez-Roux et al. 2007). Safety of Parks Powell et al. (2003) reported that four studies which were carried out found no significant relation between safety aspect and walking in ones neighborhood, but the three other studies found such a relation. One of the latter indicated that recommended activity levels were met by 43 percent of peoples who had safe places to walk within 10 minutes of home and on the contrary only 27 percent of those without safe places (Powell et al. 2003). An onsite survey in a large metropolitan park revealed that among older adults, female park visitors had significantly more fear of crime than did males (Raymore and Scott 1998). Fear of crime was found to be an important factor, and former crime victims (9 percent of all those surveyed) were particularly fearful. Respondents reported that traveling to and from the park were more worrisome than being in the park itself. Supply of Outdoor Spaces The number parks and playgrounds in a community are related positively to physical activity levels. For instance, a study of some 500 adults from 56 neighborhoods in Oregon, Portland, found that both the area of green or open space and the number of recreation facilities were related to high levels of physical activity (Li et al. 2005). Although the number parks and green spaces in a community positively influence on physical activity, researchers cannot say that large parks are no more likely to be associated with higher levels of physical activity than smaller parks. For example, a study of four neighborhoods in Ontario found no such relationship between the size of parks and their use for physical activity (Kaczynski et al. 2008). The provision of facilities The benefits of engaging in physical activities, particularly outdoor activities, are dependent on the type of infrastructure provided to participant. According to Aldous (2006), he noted that in the context of leisure planning, providing adequate infrastructure and green spaces in urban areas was important in creating and broadening appreciation for the nature and environment. Similarly, Crilley (2007) studied the theme of infrastructure provision to understand the important attributes of trails. Hence, it resulted in the five top trail attributes were: easily accessible; the trail should be safe; well-maintained surface, have adequate signage along the trail and that the trail should be well maintained. Park and Playground Design and Features Parks with soccer fields, courts, basketball courts, volleyball courts, tennis and racquetball and playgrounds were associated from moderate to vigorous levels activity (Floyd et al. 2008). In another study, some researchers have examined 28 features of ball fields, bike paths, and so forth in 33 parks they found that parks with several features were more likely to be used for physical activity rather than parks with fewer features. Moreover, according to Kaczynski et al. (2008) parks with paved trails, for instance, were 26 times more likely to be used for physical activity than parks without paved trails. A study of four park types (neighborhood park, waterfront park, city park, extreme park) showed that levels of moderate or vigorous activity were highest in the areas having courts, sports fields, playgrounds, and paths, whereas sedentary activity was observed in open green spaces (Shores and West 2008).

Comparing Functionalist and Traditional Marxist Perspectives on Crime E

There are many theories on why crime exists as well has who is committing the crimes and the underlying reasons behind it The two main perspectives being Traditional Marxist and Functionalist both with different views they share very little in common, however they do agree that society shapes the individual and not the individual that shapes society. What is meant by that is that we are all products of our upbringings and learn through socialisation what our beliefs are, what we agree on personally and often shared beliefs and the understanding of what is 'the norm; through our primary interaction with others beginning at home and continuing onto schooling and work. Our beliefs aren't always set in stone and can change through time and growth and the interaction with others once outside the family domain. There are many explanations beginning with Durkheim who was a functionalist, there is Merton who doesn't totally agree with Durkheim but adopted his theory on 'Anomie' and made it his own. In addition there is Hirschi whose theories mirrored that of Durkheim's and before concluding, Marxist view on crime will be looked at. The Functionalist view on crime and society is likening it to the human body to explain it functions. The body has it organs whereas society has it institutions. Functionalists have an interest in the functions of crime, hence the name and are interested in how crime contributes to society as a whole. There is a belief that society is based on consensus or agreement of shared beliefs and values of what is considered to be 'the norm', the views hare then passed on through socialisation. Share values and beliefs o... ... be deviant within a corporate structure although should it occur it is highly unlikely the public would be made aware of it. However the question of mental state of an individual hasn't even been raised by any of the sociologists to explain why a person may offend. Merton seemed to make a lot of sense but there seemed to be something missing in his explanations on why crime exists why some commit and others don't, perhaps the reality is there is no definite answer on why it exists. BIBLOGRAPHY Durkheim, E (1985/1987) Suicide: A Study in Sociology, London: Routledge Erikson, K J. (1966) Wayward Puritans, New York: Wiley Hirschi, T. (1969) Causes of delinquency, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press Merton, R. (1938) Social Structure and Anomie, American Sociological Review, Vol 3, 672-683